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Emulsions: Formation, Stability, Industrial Applications (de Gruyter Textbook)

Penned By Tharwat F Tadros
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Emulsions: Formation, Stability, Industrial Applications (de Gruyter Textbook)

Penned By Tharwat F Tadros
4.85 58,263 Ratings
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Editor's Note:
Chapter 1 General IntroductionDefinition of emulsions and the role of the emulsifier. Classification based on the nature of the emulsifier. Classification based on the structure of the system. General instability problems with emulsions: creaming/sedimentation, flocculation, Ostwald ripening, coalescence and phase inversion. Importance of emulsions in various industrial applications.Chapter 2 Thermodynamics of Emulsion Formation and BreakdownApplication of the second law of thermodynamics for emulsion formation: Balance of energy and entropy and non-spontaneous formation of emulsions. Breakdown of the emulsion by flocculation and coalescence in the absence of an emulsifier. Role of the emulsifier in preventing flocculation and coalescence by creating an energy barrier resulting from the repulsive energies between the droplets.Chapter 3 Interaction Forces between Emulsion DropletsVan der Waals attraction and its dependence on droplet size, Hamaker constant and separation distance between the droplets. Electrostatic repulsion resulting from the presence of electrical double layers and its dependence on surface (or zeta) potential and electrolyte concentration and valency. Combination of the van der Waals attraction with double layer repulsion and the theory of colloid stability. Steric repulsion resulting from the presence of adsorbed non-ionic surfactants and polymers. Combination of van der Waals attraction with steric repulsion and the theory of steric stabilisation.Chapter 4 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Oil/Water InterfaceThermodynamic analysis of surfactant adsorption and the Gibbs adsorption isotherm. Calculation of the amount of surfactant adsorption and area per surfactant molecule at the interface. Experimental techniques for measuring the interfacial tension.Chapter 5 Mechanism of Emulsification and the Role of the EmulsifierDescription of the factors responsible for droplet deformation and its break-up. Role of surfactant in preventing coalescence during emulsification. Definition of the Gibbs dilational elasticity and the Marangoni effect in preventing coalescence.Chapter 6 Methods of EmulsificationPipe flow, static mixers and high speed stirrers (rotor-stator mixer). Laminar and turbulent flow. Membrane emulsification. High pressure homogenisers and ultrasonic methods.Chapter 7 Selection of EmulsifiersThe hydrophilic-lipophilic-balance (HLB) and its application in surfactant selection. Calculation of HLB numbers and the effect of the nature of the oil phase. The phase inversion temperature (PIT) method for emulsifier selection. The cohesive energy ratio method for emulsifier selection.Chapter 8 Creaming/Sedimentation of Emulsions and its preventionDriving force for creaming/sedimentation: effect of gravity, droplet size and density difference between the oil and continuous phase. Calculation of the rate of creaming/sedimentation in dilute emulsions. Influence of increase of the volume fraction of the disperse phase on the rate of creaming/sedimentation. Reduction of creaming/sedimentation: Balance of the density of the two phases, reduction of droplet size and effect of addition of ''thickeners'.Chapter 9 Flocculation of Emulsions and its PreventionFactors affecting flocculation. Calculation of fast and slow flocculation rate. Definition of stability ratio and its dependence on electrolyte concentration and valency. Definition of the critical coagulation concentration and its dependence on electrolyte valency. Reduction of flocculation by enhancing the repulsive forces.Chapter 10 Ostwald Ripening and its ReductionFactors responsible for Ostwald ripening: difference in solubility between small and large droplets and the Kelvin equation. Calculation of the rate of Ostwald ripening. Reduction of Ostwald ripening by incorporation of a small amount of highly insoluble oil. Reduction of Ostwald ripening by the use of strongly adsorbed polymeric surfactant and enhancement of the Gibbs elasticity.Chapter 11 Emulsion Coalescence and its PreventionDriving force for emulsion coalescence: Thinning and disruption of the liquid film between the droplets. The concept of disjoining pressure for prevention of coalescence. Methods for reduction or elimination of coalescence: Use of mixed surfactant films, use of lamellar liquid crystalline phases and use of polymeric surfactants.Chapter 12 Phase Inversion and its PreventionDistinction between catastrophic and transient phase inversion. Influence of the disperse volume fraction and surfactant HLB number. Explanation of the factors responsible for phase inversion.Chapter 13 Characterisation of EmulsionsMeasurement of droplet size distribution: Optical microscopy and image analysis. Phase contrast and polarising microscopyDiffraction methods. Confocal laser microscopy. Back scattering methodsChapter 14 Industrial Application of Emulsions14.1 Application in Pharmacy14.2 Applic...

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Tharwat F Tadros
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Tharwat F Tadros

Tharwat F Tadros writes contemporary fiction and has always been fascinated by character-driven stories. They hold a degree in English Literature and previously worked as an editor before transitioning to writing their own books. Tharwat F Tadros lives with their spouse and a very vocal rescue cat.

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"Such a rich narrative. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
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"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. It held my rapt attention, even when certain twists were telegraphed. Quite impressive overall."
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"I was completely blown away. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
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"A profoundly satisfying read. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. I am now a lifelong fan of this author."
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"A profoundly satisfying read. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
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James Roberts
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"Masterpiece from start to finish. The pacing was impeccable and the characters felt incredibly authentic. I was completely immersed. A true literary gem."
Eric Clark
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"Absolutely brilliant. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
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"Honestly one of the most premium reading experiences lately. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Barbara Torres
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"Excellent, though slightly flawed. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. A solid 4 stars from me."
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"A profoundly satisfying read. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
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"An acceptable diversion. Certain acts were fascinating, while others felt like a slight endeavor to complete. Unlikely to reread, but a reasonable expenditure of time."
Paul Mitchell
Paul Mitchell September 16, 2024
"Exceeded all my expectations. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. A true literary gem."
Anthony Harris
Anthony Harris February 08, 2025
"Absolutely brilliant. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. An effortless 5 stars."
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Matthew Lopez
Matthew Lopez September 09, 2024
"It was adequate. The prose was competent, yet the characters lacked the depth I usually seek. Unlikely to reread, but a reasonable expenditure of time."
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"A highly sophisticated read. It held my rapt attention, even when certain twists were telegraphed. I would highly recommend this to discerning readers."
Deborah King
Deborah King June 05, 2024
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. A very distinguished novel."
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"A profoundly satisfying read. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Donald Green
Donald Green January 17, 2025
"Honestly one of the most premium reading experiences lately. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. A true literary gem."
Rebecca Flores
Rebecca Flores June 24, 2025
"A very strong entry. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. I would highly recommend this to discerning readers."
Amanda Perez
Amanda Perez June 03, 2025
"Exceeded all my expectations. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. A true literary gem."
Richard Baker
Richard Baker July 09, 2025
"I was completely blown away. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. A true literary gem."
Nancy Anderson
Nancy Anderson May 21, 2025
"Masterpiece from start to finish. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Kimberly Moore
Kimberly Moore October 25, 2024
"Exceeded all my expectations. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
William Smith
William Smith April 09, 2025
"Masterpiece from start to finish. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. I am now a lifelong fan of this author."
Steven  Parker
Steven Parker June 26, 2025
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John Davis November 19, 2025
"Absolutely brilliant. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. Worth every moment spent reading."
Carol Carter
Carol Carter February 27, 2025
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. The protagonist was compelling, though some subplots felt slightly overshadowed. I would highly recommend this to discerning readers."
David Cruz
David Cruz November 18, 2025
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. A very distinguished novel."
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Laura Jones July 27, 2025
"Masterpiece from start to finish. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. An effortless 5 stars."
Patricia Mitchell
Patricia Mitchell May 01, 2024
"A profoundly satisfying read. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Ashley Garcia
Ashley Garcia August 12, 2025
"I was completely blown away. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Kenneth Flores
Kenneth Flores August 03, 2024
"Exceeded all my expectations. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. Worth every moment spent reading."
Dorothy Young
Dorothy Young November 02, 2024
"A profoundly satisfying read. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. A true literary gem."
Mary Thompson
Mary Thompson April 23, 2024
"Masterpiece from start to finish. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. I am now a lifelong fan of this author."
George Clark
George Clark December 07, 2024
"Absolutely brilliant. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. A true literary gem."
Joshua Wright
Joshua Wright February 21, 2024
"I was completely blown away. The pacing was impeccable and the characters felt incredibly authentic. I was completely immersed. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Charles Wilson
Charles Wilson February 06, 2024
"Absolutely brilliant. The pacing was impeccable and the characters felt incredibly authentic. I was completely immersed. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Amanda Lee
Amanda Lee October 04, 2025
"Took a moment to build, but the payoff was spectacular. The protagonist was compelling, though some subplots felt slightly overshadowed. A solid 4 stars from me."
Elizabeth  Davis
Elizabeth Davis October 13, 2025
"Masterpiece from start to finish. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Lisa Turner
Lisa Turner July 23, 2025
"Exceeded all my expectations. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. An effortless 5 stars."
Linda Garcia
Linda Garcia July 28, 2024
"I was completely blown away. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Mark Diaz
Mark Diaz March 24, 2024
"Masterpiece from start to finish. The pacing was impeccable and the characters felt incredibly authentic. I was completely immersed. A true literary gem."
Mary White
Mary White August 05, 2024
"Honestly one of the most premium reading experiences lately. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Eric Johnson
Eric Johnson January 14, 2024
"A profoundly satisfying read. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Kimberly Gomez
Kimberly Gomez August 12, 2024
"A highly sophisticated read. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. Quite impressive overall."
Ashley Brown
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"Absolutely brilliant. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. A true literary gem."
Lisa Smith
Lisa Smith March 07, 2024
"Honestly one of the most premium reading experiences lately. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Amanda Harris
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"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. The protagonist was compelling, though some subplots felt slightly overshadowed. A very distinguished novel."
Carol Edwards
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"Exceeded all my expectations. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Kenneth Harris
Kenneth Harris February 26, 2024
"I was completely blown away. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. A true literary gem."
Cynthia Phillips
Cynthia Phillips May 06, 2024
"Masterpiece from start to finish. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. An effortless 5 stars."
Andrew Clark
Andrew Clark January 13, 2025
"It was adequate. The prose was competent, yet the characters lacked the depth I usually seek. Perhaps more aligned with a different audience's tastes."
Michelle Jones
Michelle Jones November 24, 2025
"Absolutely brilliant. It strikes a perfect harmony of dialogue and world-building. Every chapter felt necessary. I am now a lifelong fan of this author."
Karen  Davis
Karen Davis June 29, 2025
"A profoundly satisfying read. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. An effortless 5 stars."
Kevin King
Kevin King January 11, 2024
"I was completely blown away. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. A true literary gem."
James Roberts
James Roberts December 26, 2024
"A very strong entry. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. A solid 4 stars from me."
James Nguyen
James Nguyen July 14, 2025
"Such a rich narrative. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. A true literary gem."
Joshua Sanchez
Joshua Sanchez August 14, 2025
"A highly sophisticated read. The protagonist was compelling, though some subplots felt slightly overshadowed. I would highly recommend this to discerning readers."
William Scott
William Scott July 25, 2025
"Such a rich narrative. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. A true literary gem."
Linda Garcia
Linda Garcia September 03, 2025
"I was completely blown away. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Patricia Nelson
Patricia Nelson August 11, 2025
"A profoundly satisfying read. The pacing was impeccable and the characters felt incredibly authentic. I was completely immersed. A true literary gem."
Anthony Harris
Anthony Harris October 14, 2025
"It was adequate. The tempo was somewhat languid, and I found my mind wandering. Not poor, simply average. Perhaps more aligned with a different audience's tastes."
George Nelson
George Nelson September 27, 2024
"Such a rich narrative. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. A true literary gem."
Lisa Jones
Lisa Jones August 05, 2024
"Absolutely brilliant. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. Worth every moment spent reading."
Dorothy Edwards
Dorothy Edwards May 23, 2025
"Honestly one of the most premium reading experiences lately. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
William Smith
William Smith September 07, 2024
"A very strong entry. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. Quite impressive overall."
Carol  Parker
Carol Parker August 28, 2025
"Excellent, though slightly flawed. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. A solid 4 stars from me."
Edward Ramirez
Edward Ramirez December 26, 2025
"Absolutely brilliant. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. I am now a lifelong fan of this author."
Eric Johnson
Eric Johnson August 25, 2025
"A profoundly satisfying read. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Matthew Diaz
Matthew Diaz December 20, 2025
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. Beautiful writing, though I craved slightly more depth in the lore. Still, undeniably engaging. A wonderful companion for a quiet weekend."
Laura Flores
Laura Flores June 23, 2025
"Took a moment to build, but the payoff was spectacular. The protagonist was compelling, though some subplots felt slightly overshadowed. Quite impressive overall."
Betty Collins
Betty Collins November 06, 2024
"A profoundly satisfying read. I adored how the story unfolded. It kept me captivated without sacrificing elegance. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Lisa Reyes
Lisa Reyes August 08, 2024
"I was completely blown away. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. A true literary gem."
Kimberly Johnson
Kimberly Johnson September 14, 2025
"A profoundly satisfying read. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. Worth every moment spent reading."
Robert Torres
Robert Torres April 29, 2025
"Took a moment to build, but the payoff was spectacular. Beautiful writing, though I craved slightly more depth in the lore. Still, undeniably engaging. A wonderful companion for a quiet weekend."
Mary Campbell
Mary Campbell June 30, 2024
"I was completely blown away. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. A true literary gem."
Gary Hernandez
Gary Hernandez May 01, 2024
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. The protagonist was compelling, though some subplots felt slightly overshadowed. A very distinguished novel."
George Green
George Green December 11, 2024
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. A very distinguished novel."
Margaret Robinson
Margaret Robinson April 07, 2024
"I was completely blown away. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. An absolute must-read for connoisseurs of the genre."
Sarah King
Sarah King January 30, 2024
"Masterpiece from start to finish. The pacing was impeccable and the characters felt incredibly authentic. I was completely immersed. A true literary gem."
Richard Jones
Richard Jones February 11, 2024
"Absolutely brilliant. The pacing was impeccable and the characters felt incredibly authentic. I was completely immersed. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Brian White
Brian White March 19, 2024
"I was completely blown away. The author orchestrated a breathtaking finale. Truly a work of art. An effortless 5 stars."
Brian Young
Brian Young March 01, 2025
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. I would highly recommend this to discerning readers."
Melissa Thomas
Melissa Thomas September 10, 2025
"Absolutely brilliant. I became deeply invested in the protagonist's journey. A masterclass in storytelling. I will undoubtedly revisit this masterpiece."
Lisa Moore
Lisa Moore August 01, 2025
"I thoroughly enjoyed the elegance of it. A brilliant concept executed with flair. Just a few pacing choices I would change. A wonderful companion for a quiet weekend."
Patricia Mitchell
Patricia Mitchell December 25, 2025
"Absolutely brilliant. The prose is exquisite. It’s accessible yet undeniably sophisticated. I am now a lifelong fan of this author."
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